- takes risks,
- persists with difficulty,
- learning from drafts and mistakes
- ask searching questions
- tries things out and dig for understanding
- make connections with previous learning
- think clearly
- use imagination; i.e. both strategic and
opportunist
- learn alone or with others.
These
characteristics all relate to the change that is necessary in order to grow as
a coach. Coach educators must move beyond traditional education structures and
processes to embrace what other professionals already recognize, namely that
reflection has to be actively developed to maximise learning.
Lyle
(2002) also highlights that coach education must create opportunities for
developing coaches:
That
will enable the coach:
- to
move beyond existing practice
- to
innovate
- to
experiment
- to
adapt
- to
reflect
- to build underpinning knowledge and skills for the requirements of ‘higher levels’ of coaching
There
are many similarities between Claxton’s characteristics of effective learning
and Lyle’s desired opportunities for coaches.
Current research demonstrates a lack of clarity in different means of
learning.
Smith
(2004), in his generic tutor training manual, provides a structured guide for
effective learning. The guide includes the notion ‘learning to learn’. Along
with this is the developing concept of empowering the coach to become
strategically aware of one’s own learning.
Consequently there is a strong emphasis on the coach to understand and
value in particular the processes related to critical reflection. This understanding may come in different
forms of learning. Within sport
Reflection has become a widely used tool to help understanding and development,
and is utilised to evaluate personal performance.
Reflective
practice can show its importance in Blooms taxonomy (1956) of learning
objectives. Resulting in evaluation and
critique, this is placed at the highest educational objective. In contrast Biggs (1999) aligns the process
of reflection to the highest extended abstract level of learning, often
described as deep learning. Although
Bloom and Biggs agree that reflection should be placed at the ‘highest’ order,
it is Briggs who highlights that it is a method of learning and not necessarily
an objective. Reflection is far more
personal than just an objective, and there are many characteristics that are
highlighted in Claxton (2005) that demonstrate similar characteristics involved
within coaching pedagogy. Lives, social and cultural contexts, personal
experiences, philosophies and professional practice are all interrelated in
formations that challenge our traditional perception of coaching practice. Jones (2006) describes coaching pedagogy as
four interlinked elements of coaching, learning, knowledge base and learning
environment. This element matches the characteristics of an effective learner
(Claxton, 2005) and combined with the empowerment of self learning (Smith,
2004), makes reflective practice a valuable idea. This is because the process of ‘sifting’ and
‘sorting’ to make sense of personalised learning.
The
effectiveness of coach education programmes has been identified as a key factor
in the development of quality coaches.
In recent years strategic appraisals of coaching and coach education
have contributed to the emergence of national benchmarks / standards for
practice in amateur to elite coaches. In
a study by Knowles et al (2006) six NGB coach education programmes were
examined to ascertain whether they actively attempted to develop either
reflective or critical thinking skills in coaches and thereby maximising
experiential learning (figure1.)
Appearance of Categories in
Programmes
|
|||||||
Theme
|
Category
|
NGB-A
|
NGB-B
|
NGB-C
|
NGB-D
|
NGB-E
|
NGB-F
|
Aims and
learning
outcomes
|
Reflection/
reflective
skills
|
* |
* |
||||
Content |
Evaluation of sessions
Underpinning
concepts
of
reflection
Teaching
reflective
skills
|
* |
* |
* |
* |
* |
* |
Subject
focus
|
Technical
content of
sessions
Values
and beliefs
|
*
|
*
|
*
|
*
|
*
|
*
|
Programme
activities
|
Logged
coaching
experience
Mentoring
|
*
|
*
|
*
|
|||
Knowledge
bases
|
Underpinning
concepts
of
knowledge
|
*
|
*
|
||||
(Figure1. Knowles, 2006)
In
terms of programme subject and content it was clear that primary curriculum
emphasis was on delivery of technical information, development of sport
specific technical skills and evaluation of specific sessions. Programmes focused on the evaluation of
sessions and programmes, which specific attention being direct to session
construction and technical content. Issues of value and belief about coaching,
which can have an immense impact upon practice, were not dealt with in any
programme apart from discussions of coaching philosophy within lower level
coaching awards (Knowles et al 2006). As
identified in the FA level 2 Coaching Award, it’s all about the session,
technique and skill and nothing on reflection or how to reflect or develop as a
coach. This supports previous
observations by Abraham and Collins (1998). Equally, Miles (2001) noted that the advent of
the competency – based NVQ process in coach education has increased emphasis on
the importance of what coaches should be able to do rather than focusing on
what they should know.
The
use of conceptual models of reflection (Gibbs 1988), to underpin reflection is
usual. These models depict the characteristics and process of reflection, enable
the practitioner to ‘know’ what it means to reflect, and yet such models are
not used in coaching programs. A failure to provide an underpinning structure
to support experimental learning is unlikely to allow coaches to explore the
nuances of their own practice, access and develop tacit knowledge and be
creative in their application of sport specific technical knowledge. Cox (2005) describes reflection as a widely
employed tool to aid understanding and development and is utilized by coaches
to evaluate personal performance.
Reflection is a development in accessing experience within
coaching. As a tool, reflection supports
the learning process as demonstrated by Gilbert and Trudel (2004). It could be justified that coach reflection
is better suited to novice or inexperienced coaches to benefit their learning
development. However what Current research fails to highlight is the link
between coaching pedagogy with reflective practice to enhance coaches thinking
at all levels. Anderson et al. (2004)
suggests that reflective process requires the practitioner to be questioning his
or her practice while examining each component in detail. Coaching is about teaching and learning. This can easily be applied to the coaching
environment. Byra (1996) utilised video
reflection of personal teaching practice within the education of pre service
physical education teachers. Byra identified a greater depth of analysis was
presented rather than a simple description of the performance. Video has also been used to explore the
cognitive aspects of coaching. However
even with the data analysis of the video, it is the pedagogy that surrounds the
tool that creates an environment for the growth of coaches.
Jones
(2005) summary of coaching pedagogy as a concept of multidimensional and
connective and centrally about learning justifies Andersons empower of self
learning.
There
are a number of methods and theories related to the process of reflection. Gibbs’ cyclical model identifies six stages
within a progressive structure, while Hoover (1994) suggested a number of
specific questions that would encourage sport coaches to initiate reflective
practice. Other methods of reflection
include journal writing; mentoring support; shared learning experiences and
initiated learning experiences. All
methods share a common aim to facilitate self – development. Research has found that good coaches act like
good teachers, as they care about those whom they have responsibility and
constantly engage in reflection on what they do and how they do it (Gilbert
& Trudel, 2001). This suggests that athlete learning as opposed to
mechanistic performance is at the heart of coaching and therefore pedagogy
should play a role in preparing coaches.
Cox (2005) describes professional growth and increased understanding of
personal performance can be developed through the utilization of reflective
process. Both Growth and understanding
are concepts used within coaching pedagogy. Coaches create environments to
‘grow player’ (British lions rugby coach Ian McGeecan) and this theory can also be
used to nurture coaches of any level of experiences. Coaching pedagogy better allows coaches to
understand the environment they create to facilitate a players learning. Without this facilitation the relationship
between player and learning becomes distant.
There is a direct relationship between a coach ‘learning to learn’ (Smith,
2004) and using reflective practice to best understand how a player or an
athlete’s learns.
Rather
than ignoring or avoiding specific instances that have occurred within a
practice, reflection encourages the coach to resolve the issues and to work
through a process either to remove debilitating practice or increase facilitative
practice. Anderson et al (2004) proposed
that reflection on decisions and experiences augments the understanding and
learning process of the practitioner.
Learning
is a broad and complicated subject. It is a contested topic ranging from three
key theories: behaviourism, cognitivism and social/constructivism. Thus there is no all encompassing learning
theory in which to base coach development on.
Approaches to coach learning remain largely uninformed. Most learning is
undertaken within a cluster of ideas or experiences. All theories of learning are based on
assumptions concerning the individual, the world and the relationship between
the two (Jarvis, 2004).
Behavioural
theorist suggests that if an individual enjoys the sport coaching and
competition environments they are more likely to continue to participate and
succeed within them. Creating a rewarding and enjoyable climate would then
appear to bean an important element of good coaching. However what constitutes
as enjoyable and rewarding will not be the same for everyone. In behavioural learning theory, new
skills are taught or shaped through a series of small reinforcing steps towards
the final desired action (Walker and Shea, 1999) E.G. when teaching a grounded
pass to complete beginners, the coach would not simply demonstrate the full pass
and wait until it is performed perfectly to reinforce the learner. Rather the
coach would first reinforce the correct position of the foot (Instep), then the
stance, and then the contact point and so on until the complete strike is
performed. Therefore the individuals’ technique is being improved by
reinforcing the individual steps towards the final goal. Applying
this theory to sporting context is not easy. E.G. what acts as a reinforce for
one person may be a punisher for another. Previous experience from significant
others (Parents, friends etc) may also play a part in the individuals response
to praise and criticism.
These
considerations and others may affect the coaches’ application of behavioural
theory. Subsequently it is only through knowledge of individuals and situation
variables, along with reflection on previous experience that the best coaches
learn to adopt the most effective behaviours and strategies to suit different
coaching situations.
Social
learning theory accepts most of the principles of behavioural theories but
concentrates more on observational learning or modelling (Bandura, 1986).
Although it is relevant to athlete learning, it has to date been more common
cited as an explanation of how coaches develop their own coaching methods and
style. I this later respect, it is akin to serving an apprenticeship (Cassedy
et al, 2004). In relation to the
teaching and learning relationship, Bandura (1986) describes modelling as a
four stage process: attention, retention, motor production and motivation. In
the attention stage, the best coaches position themselves appropriately for the
group, communicate effectively whilst focusing on a few key coaching points,
and demonstrate several times whilst letting the learners know exactly what to
look for ( Weinberg & Gould, 2003). The second stage of retention involves
memorising the observed act, which might include mental practice or question
and answer by the coach to help the learners remember the key points. Physical
practice is then required for an effective motor reproduction stage, so that
individuals learn to coordinate their muscle actions with their thoughts. In
order for this phase to be effective, skill progression and optimal practice
time is required. The final stage is motivation, without which the other phases
will not be effective. This involves the learners imitating a model because
they believe it will it will increase their chances of gaining success. Self regulation is another important concept
in social learning theory (Schunk, 20099). According to Bandura (1977a) people
consider their own behaviour, judge it against their own standards and
reinforce or punish themselves accordingly. In order to achieve this we need an
expectation of our own performance. Coaches can foster self regulation by
getting athletes to set self referenced goals before and during competition and
training sessions (Ames, 1992b). Such goals could be to improve performance of
a particular technique or skill, or to reduce the number of errors made. Thus,
self regulation involves thought process and begins to bridge the gap between the
behavioural perspective and the constructivist approach to learning.
There
is compromise of opinion that we do not learn by receiving passively and then
recalling what we are taught. Instead, learning involves actively constructing
our own meaning linked to what we already know. Constructivist learning theory
draws heavily on the work of Piaget (1896-1980) and Vygotsky (1978), both of
whom argued that a process of disequilibrium in the light of new information is
required in order for effective learning to take place (Slavin 2003).
Hammond
(2004) ascertained that performance analysis techniques utilised to develop
athletic performance were also beneficial to sports coaching. Coaches use video analysis to benefit their
players learning experience; the same method could be used to aid a coaches
learning experience.
Franks
and miller (1991) identification that coaches are less than 45% correct in post
- performance analysis and feedback therefore use of video analysis can be
greatly supportive in reflective practice.
In general post – performance reflection could be based on only partial
information and as a result vital information maybe lost or overlooked. Most literature discussing the use of video
analysis within reflective practice has encouraged the analysis of experienced
performers and neglects the benefits of personal experience.
To
conclude coaching is about teaching and learning; key pedagogical concepts,
theories and research can easily be applied to the coaching environment. Jones and Turner (2006) suggest that any
coach education program should be based on improving the participants’ ability
to deal with the dynamic nature of coaching. Although greater knowledge of the
coaching process allows more detailed analysis, the use of video analysis
demonstrates important strengths and weaknesses of practice. The development of technology to assist coach
development is increasing and online resources being used as coaching aids or
tools to improve their coaching performance.
The ability to analysis and reflect accurately, should allow for better
cognitive understanding of the coaching process.
Video
has also been used to explore the cognitive aspects of coaching, however even
with the data analysis of the video; it is the pedagogy that surrounds the tool
that creates an environment for growth of coaches.
Although
it has been suggested that individuals learn most in a constructivist way, it is
important to acknowledge that good coaching practice also draws on many aspects
of behaviourist and social learning theories, particularly in the feedback and
evaluation process. Similarly the best coaches draw upon a range of learning
theories and from both reproductive and productive teaching styles to achieve
their learning outcomes in successfully dealing with different coaching
scenarios.
The
key message is that coaches should continually evaluate their sessions within a
broad pedagogical theoretical framework which will enable them to become more
reflective practitioners.
 |
Active
experimentation should be encouraged and coaches in sport should be allowed to
make mistakes to create a supportive environment whereby mistakes are seen as
learning opportunities. Figure two
highlights a brief paragraphs on what is known about issues surrounding
reflective practice (In blue writing), compared to the gaps in current research
(in purple writing). The relationship
between athlete and coach is mutual when regarding to development. Allpress (2006), explained: “Coaches are not
there primarily to show or tell players what they know; they are there to
create environments for learning that challenge the players...” If Coaches
facilitate their own learning environment where by the player is challenged,
should ensure both occupational and individual standards are achieved.
Participant recruitment / sampling procedures
Epistemological
position
Constructivism of Constructionism.
The
aim of the interview is to gather knowledge from previous experience to create
a meaning around notational analysis and how it could benefit reflective practice.
Theoretical
Perspective
Interpretivism Phenomenology
Phenomenology is concerned with the study of
experience from the perspective
of the individual (Lester, 1999, p1).
However,
as stated by Hycner (1999, p. 143), a potential problem with phenomenolgy, it
can focus on specific steps.
Methodological
approach
Phenomenological
research
Pure
phenomenological research seeks essentially
to describe rather than explain, and to start from a perspective free from
hypotheses or preconceptions (Husserl 1970).
How
would a coach see the use of notational analysis on their practice?
Phenomenological research can be robust in
highlighting the presence of factors and their effects in coach’s individual
cases.
Method
Semi
–structured interviews with a list of key themes, issues, and questions to be
covered. Purpose sampling ensured a representative group of participants that
included the manager and coach of the football club. The target for the sampling strategy was to maximise
the variation (Patton, 2000) in the sampling by selecting participants who had
a wide range of experience at an elite level of football.
While
identify that the goal of this study was not generalisability, by adding
variability into the sampling the potential for a range of opinions to emerge
was optimised.
Ethical
issues and how they will be managed
In
conducting interviews, ethical issues are one of the major issues. Confidentiality
must be given. Respondents “should not be harmed or damaged in any way by the
research … It is also important that interviews are not used as a devious means
of selling something to the respondent” (Gray, 2004 p. 235). If respondents are
nervous and become distress, the interview can be cancelled or postponed. The
following is a list of some of the issues and suggested ethical solutions
(Patton, 2000, p. 404-5 and Gray, 2004 p. 235).
•
Explain purpose. Explain the purpose of the inquiry interview and the
relationship with the purpose to football.
•
Promises and reciprocity. State what the respondent will gain from the research
and the knowledge they have to add to the study.
•
Risk assessment. Consider in what ways the interview might put the respondent
at risk in terms of stress, legal liabilities, ostracism or political
repercussion.
•
Confidentiality. Reflect on the extent to which promises of confidentiality can
be met. All transcripts or tape messages should be erased or destroyed post
research
•
Inform consent. The respondent should agree to and sign a consent form before
starting the interview
•
Data access and ownership. Evaluate who has the right to access data and for
what purpose. In the case of research
state in the consent the purpose of the study and that should clarify ownership
of the data to the researcher.
•
Mental health. Consider how interviewer and interviewee mental health may be
affected by conducting the interview.
Personal question should be taking into account and the interviewer
should not probe too deep into the coaches past experiences of their personal
life.
•
Advice. Appoint an adviser on ethical matters during the course of the study. And question regarding ethical issues, a
consultation with my tutor will be made to solve such issue.
•
Data collection boundaries. What lengths will you go to in trying to gain
access to data you want? What won’t you do?
•
How hard will you push interviewees to respond to questions about which they
show some discomfort?
When
an interview has been completed and is considered a good interview, the
respondents should know more about themselves and their situation. However, the
researcher must remember that the purpose of research is to collect data and
not to change the respondents or their opinions (Gray, 2004 p. 235).
Participant recruitment / sampling procedures
The
target for the sampling strategy was to maximise the variation (Patton, 1990)
by selecting participants who had a wide range of experience at an elite level
of football combined with a range of coaching at different levels. However
coaches were selected due to their involvement within a football academy.
While
identifying that the goal of this study was not generalisability, by adding
variability into the sampling the potential for a range of opinions to emerge
was optimised.
The sample of coaching staff (n= 3) had
a mean age of 40 years and 20 years of experience coaching at an elite
level. The coaches who are currently
still playing (n= 3) had a mean age of 21.5 and had 6 years of elite level
experience. Informed consent was
received from participants before proceeding with data collection.
Methods
of data collection
Data
was collected using qualitative methods, namely a interview. Within the introduction of the interview
guide, the researcher explained the purpose of the interview, and how the
results might be used. Reassurance of
confidentiality and the participants’ rights to drop out at any time were
explained. The questions contained
within the protocol were formed from a review of the available literature (in
particular Krueger and Casey, 2006).
Coach interview protocol varied in certain respects and these are
described below.
Coaches
were asked to talk about their past experiences and how they perceive video
analysis. The topics that were talked about from a coaches’ perspective were classified
into three Sections:
- Resources
and background knowledge surrounding video analysis (e.g. when did you
first hear about the use of video analysis within football? What do you feel is the scope for using
video analysis in the academy?’).
- The
content and delivery of video analysis services (e.g. ‘how much is video
analysis used within the academy? How would you use video analysis to
benefit your coaching practice?’).
- The
effectiveness of video analysis (e.g. ‘to what extent do you feel that
video analysis helps the coach to perform better? In what way, if any, does the video
analysis help or hinder you as a coach?’).
Coaches
who still play football followed a similar protocol in which individual’s
performance was also explored (‘well, do you feel like that pressurised you to
perform? Earlier you said about yourself
being ‘in their shoes’. How did you think that improves the understanding of
the player’s perception of a coach and how would that impact your
performance?’).
One
pilot interview with a coach educator was conducted to gain experience in
controlling topics and probing in order to gain more specific examples. Feedback was also received, concerning
content of the topics in the interview conversation.
Research
phases
Interviews
were conducted at the end of the football season 2009/10. In line of the overall sampling strategy,
coaches were chosen with over 5 years of experience in elite football to give a
range of coaching styles, club philosophies and environments. The coaches also selected, undertook their
coaching qualifications at the London FA.
Therefore they had trust within the coaching organisation and could also
build a quick rapport.
The
interviews were loosely structured and lasted from 20 to 30 minutes. Interviewees were told that the purpose of
the interview was to discuss the factors influencing video analysis to
facilitate a coaches’ education. In both
interview groups, probing questions (‘how would you deal with the
situation? How would that make you
feel?’), clarification probes (‘I don’t quite get it, tell me again? What do
you mean by…?’), and elaboration probes (‘Tell me more about that?’) were used
to determine true opinions and to ensure that responses obtained were as
consistent as possible in terms of depth and complexity (Patton, 1990). Although interviewing in person is
preferable, the geographical spread of the participants and their other
commitments made these difficult to schedule.
Telephone interviews are accepted as an alternative and suitable methods
(Marcus and Crane,1986) and one of the four interviews were conducted in this
manner. The interviewee gave their
verbal consent to have the interview recorded and confidentiality was
assured. The interview lasted 15
minutes. The interview was conducted by
a male who was trained in qualitative research methodology, had 5 years
experience at playing elite football and was a UEFA B qualified football coach.
Methods
of data analysis
The
interviews were video recorded, transcribed, and content analysed using the
procedures recommended by Patton (1990) for inductive content analysis.
The
process involves organising raw data into interpretable and meaningful themes
and categories that emerge from quotations (Patton, 1990). In the present study, the primary researcher
first coded themes using a priori code based on the research objective: explore
the use of video analysis as a reflective tool within football.
These
raw data themes were clustered around underlying uniformities from which first
– order of themes then emerged. Common
second - order themes were then identified and the hierarchical induction
continued until it was no longer possible to create a new level of thematic
representation. The highest – level
themes were labelled as general dimensions.
In
view of the researcher’s prior knowledge of the phenomenon under investigation,
the analysis process was inevitably influenced by preconceived ideas and values
(Rees and Hardy, 2000).
Finally
deductive analysis was performed to check the validity of the inductive process
by rereading the transcripts, while keeping the higher order themes in mind to
ensure they were all present. The
credibility of the findings would be assessed by checking through feedback
given to national coaches at follow – up meetings.
While
this study has engaged in consensus validation techniques in order to satisfy
qualitative validity criteria (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Patton, 1990), it is
believed that the reader should also be given the opportunity to interpret the
data in a way that may be more meaningful to them (Fletcher and Hanton, 2003). Consequently, the findings are reported using
a combination of hierarchical content trees and direct quotes from the focus
group transcripts. This is to enable the
reader to empathise with, and immerse their selves in, the participants’
perceptions and thereby better understand the complexity of the issues being
investigated.
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